Green energy

Green energy

Green energy is a term describing what is considered to be environmentally friendly, typically non-polluting, sources of power and energy, some sources may use it interchangeably with renewable energy (see #Definition below). Additionally, some governments have drafted very specific definitions of green energy or an equivalent term which may be eligible for special subsidies or support in order to promote the technology.

Green energy is commonly thought of in the context of electricity, heating, and cogeneration, and is becoming increasingly available. Consumers, businesses, and organizations may specifically purchase green energy in order to support further development, help reduce the environmental impacts associated with conventional electricity generation, and increase their nation’s energy independence.


Definition

Several definitions have been put forth for the term. These include:

• A popular term for energy produced from renewable energy resources or, sometimes, from clean (low-emitting) energy sources.[1]
  
• Green energy comes from a source which does not produce pollutants; for example, solar, wind and wave energies.[2]
  
• Energy that is produced and used in ways that produce less air pollution and other environmental impacts.[3]
  
• "environmentally friendly" energy generated from sources such as hydro (water), solar (sun), biomass (landfill) or wind.[4]

Related terms

Green power can refer specifically to electricity generated from "green" sources.
The term brown energy has been introduced by some such as the The John Ray Initiative to contrast with green energy.[5]

Alternative energy is another, sometimes equivalent, term to renewable energy. Both terms indicate sources that are non-polluting non-fossil fuel sources. Both are Buzzwords, and they differ by highlighting the environmentally friendly aspect versus the non-traditional aspect.
Since the term indicates low-pollution and environmental soundness, green energy sources are also clean technologies.


Energy sources

Green energy includes natural energetic processes that can be harnessed with little pollution. Anaerobic digestion, geothermal power, wind power, small-scale hydropower, solar power, biomass power, tidal power and wave power fall under such a category. Some versions may also include power derived from the incineration of waste.

Some organizations have specifically classified nuclear power as green energy such as cleantech.com[6]. However, even the Nuclear Energy Institute has avoided the issue of directly classifying nuclear as green energy - a public awareness campaign launched for nuclear power uses the catch phrase clean air energy.[7]
Likewise, medium or large-scale hydroelectric power or sources of air pollution such as burning biomatter or petroleum, consume water and are often excluded from the label 'green energy'.

Renewable energy certificates (Green certificates, or green tags) are currently the most convenient way for consumers and businesses to support "green power". Over 35 million homes in Europe, and 1 million in the United States, are purchasing such certificates.

No power source is entirely impact-free. All energy sources require energy and gives rise to some degree of pollution from manufacture of the technology.


Purchasing green energy through the electrical grid

In several countries with common carrier arrangements, electricity retailing arrangements make it possible for consumers to purchase green electricity from either their utility or a green power provider. The customer typically pays a small premium.

When energy is purchased from the electricity network, the power reaching the consumer will not necessarily be generated from green energy sources. The local utility company, electric company or state power pool buys their electricity from electricity producers who may be generating from fossil fuel, nuclear or renewable energy sources. In many countries green energy currently provides a very small amount of electricity, generally contributing less than 2 to 5% to the overall pool.

By participating in a green energy program a consumer may be having an effect on the energy sources used and ultimately might be helping to promote and expand the use of green energy.

They are also making a statement to policy makers that they are willing to pay a price premium to support renewable energy. Green energy consumers either obligate the utility companies to increase the amount of green energy that they purchase from the pool (so decreasing the amount of non-green energy they purchase), or directly fund the green energy through a green power provider. If insufficient green energy sources are available, the utility must develop new ones or contract with a third party energy supplier to provide green energy, causing more to be built. However, there is no way the consumer can check whether or not the electricity bought is "green" or otherwise.

In some countries such as the Netherlands, electricity companies guarantee to buy an equal amount of 'green power' as is being used by their green power customers. The Dutch government exempts green power from pollution taxes, which means green power is hardly any more expensive than other power.


Abuses

In countries where suppliers are legally obliged to purchase a proportion of their electricity from renewable sources (for example under the Renewables Obligation in the United Kingdom), there is a danger that energy suppliers may sell such green electricity under a premium 'green energy' tariff, rather than sourcing additional green electricity supplies.[8] Where a Renewable Energy Certificate or similar scheme is in operation it is also possible for the energy supplier to sell the green electricity to the consumer, and also sell the certificate to another supplier who has failed to meet their quota, rather than 'retiring' the certificate from the marketplace. In other cases green energy tariffs may involve carbon offsetting rather than purchasing or investing in renewable energy.[9][10]

Certification schemes to minimise these and similar questionable practices are in place or are being developed in a few countries.[11]


International standards

The World Wide Fund for Nature and several green electricity labelling organizations have created the Eugene Green Energy Standard under which national green electricity certification schemes can be accredited to ensure that the purchase of green energy leads to the provision of additional new green energy resources.[12]


Purchasing green energy through the gas grid

The market for heating is mostly serviced by gas and oil rather than electric power, due to the high cost per kilowatt of electricity in many countries. Distribution of cheap renewable electric power via the electrical grid has made it possible in many countries for the average consumer to choose renewable electric power, and in the same manner bionatural gas may in future be made available to the average consumer via the existing natural gas grid. [13][14]


Local green energy systems

Those not satisfied with the third-party grid approach to green energy via the power grid can install their own locally-based renewable energy system. Renewable energy electrical systems from solar to wind to even local hydro-power in some cases, are some of the many types of renewable energy systems available locally. Additionally, for those interested in heating and cooling their dwelling via renewable energy, geothermal heat pump systems that tap the constant temperature of the earth, which is around 7 to 15 degrees Celsius a few feet underground, are an option and save money over conventional natural gas and petroleum-fueled heat approaches.


United States

The advantage of this approach in the United States is that many states offer incentives to offset the cost of installation of a renewable energy system. Individuals are usually assured that the electricity they are using is actually produced from a green energy source that they control.

Once the system is paid for, the owner of a renewable energy system will be producing their own renewable electricity for essentially no cost and can sell the excess to the local utility at a profit.

DOE, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Center for Resource Solutions (CRS) [15] recognizes the voluntary purchase of electricity from renewable energy sources (also called renewable electricity or green electricity) as green power .

DOE selected six companies for its 2007 Green Power Supplier Awards, including Constellation NewEnergy; 3Degrees; Sterling Planet; SunEdison; Pacific Power and Rocky Mountain Power; and Silicon Valley Power. The combined green power provided by those six winners equals more than 5 billion kilowatt-hours per year, which is enough to power nearly 465,000 average U.S. households.

The EPA recognized the West Division of Macy's Inc., the Timberland Company, and the City of Chico, California, for their on-site generation of solar power, and also recognized New York University and six companies for purchasing green power. The EPA also named the City of Bellingham, Washington, and six more companies as their Green Power Partners of the Year.

Among all the companies, PepsiCo stands out as a partner of the year, because three of its bottling companies were also honored for buying green power. In addition, CRS awarded its Market Development Awards to the Western Washington Green Power Campaign, Clif Bar, and two individuals: John Schaeffer and Bill Spratley.

Throughout the country, more than half of all U.S. electricity customers now have an option to purchase some type of green power product from a retail electricity provider. Roughly one-quarter of the nation's utilities offer green power programs to customers, and voluntary retail sales of renewable energy in the United States totaled more than 12 billion kilowatt-hours in 2006, a 40% increase over the previous year.


See also

Alternative propulsion

Ashden Awards

Blue energy

Clean Energy Trends

Efficient energy use

Electric vehicle

Energy conservation

Energy efficiency

Energy Globe Awards

Feed-in Tariff

Global warming

Green energy certification schemes

Green banking

International Sustainable Energy Agency

Oil phase-out

Plug-in hybrid

Renewable energy

Renewable heat

The Clean Tech Revolution

V2G


National articles

Category:Green electricity by country



External links

EnviroDaq 100 Clean Tech Index Stock Index for Clean Tech and Green Energy companies listed on the London Stock Exchange.

U.S. Dept. of Energy's Green Power Network

US EPA: Green Power Partnership

Case Study: Green electricity in Darmstadt, Germany

Why Is It Better to Buy Green Electricity?

Association for Environment Conscious Building: The Green Electricity Illusion



Related journals

International Journal of Green Energy

Renewable Energy World

United States Environmental Protection Agency

United States Environmental Protection Agency

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA or sometimes USEPA) is an agency of the federal government of the United States charged with protecting human health and with safeguarding the natural environment: air, water, and land. The EPA began operation on December 2, 1970, when it was established by President Richard Nixon. It is led by its Administrator, who is appointed by the President of the United States. The EPA is not a Cabinet agency, but the Administrator is normally given cabinet rank. The current Administrator (as of 2007) is Stephen L. Johnson, and the current Deputy Administrator is Marcus Peacock. The agency has approximately 18,000 full-time employees.[1]


Overview

EPA comprises 17,000 people in headquarters program offices, 10 regional offices, and 27 laboratories across the country. More than half of its staff are engineers, scientists, and environmental protection specialists; other groups include legal, public affairs, financial, and computer specialists.

The agency conducts environmental assessment, research, and education. It has the primary responsibility for setting and enforcing national standards under a variety of environmental laws, in consultation with state, tribal, and local governments. It delegates some permitting, monitoring, and enforcement responsibility to U.S. states and Native American tribes. EPA enforcement powers include fines, sanctions, and other measures.

The agency also works with industries and all levels of government in a wide variety of voluntary pollution prevention programs and energy conservation efforts.


History

On July 9, 1970, Richard Nixon transmitted Reorganization Plan No. 3 to the United States Congress by executive order, creating the EPA as a single, independent, agency from a number of smaller arms of different federal agencies. Prior to the establishment of the EPA, the federal government was not structured to make a coordinated attack on the pollutants which harm human health and degrade the environment. The EPA was assigned the task of repairing the damage already done to the natural environment and to establish new criteria to guide Americans in making a cleaner, safer America.


Programs

Energy Star

In 1992 the EPA launched the Energy Star program, a voluntary program that fosters energy efficiency; in 2006 EPA launched WaterSense to similarly foster water efficiency. EPA also administers the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) (which is much older than the agency) and registers all pesticides legally sold in the United States. It is also responsible for reviewing projects of other federal agencies' Environmental Impact Statements under NEPA.


Fuel economy testing and results

American automobile manufacturers are required to use EPA fuel economy test results to advertise the gas mileage of their vehicles, and the manufacturers are disallowed from providing results from alternate sources. The fuel economy is calculated using the emissions data collected during two of the vehicle's Clean Air Act certification tests, by measuring the total volume of carbon captured from the exhaust during the test. This calculated fuel economy is then adjusted downward by 10% city and 22% highway to compensate for changes in driving conditions since 1972.

The current testing system was developed in 1972, and is a simulation of rush-hour Los Angeles of that era. Prior to 1984, the EPA did not adjust the fuel economy downward, and instead used the exact fuel economy figures calculated from the test. In December 2006, the EPA finalized new test methods to improve fuel economy and emission estimates, which would take effect with model year 2008 vehicles[3], setting the precedent of a 12 year review cycle on the test procedures.

As of the 2000s, most motor vehicle users report significantly lower real-world fuel economy than the EPA rating; this problem is most evident in hybrid vehicles. This is mainly because of drastic changes in typical driving habits and conditions which have occurred in the decades since the tests were implemented. For example, the average speed of the 1972 "highway" test is a mere 48 mph, with a top speed of 60 mph. It is expected that when the 2008 test methods are implemented, city estimates for non-hybrid cars will drop by 10-20%, city estimates for hybrid cars will drop by 20-30%, and highway estimates for all cars will drop by 5-15%[3]. The new methods include factors such as high speeds, aggressive accelerations, air conditioning use and driving in cold temperatures.

In February 2005, the organization launched a program called "Your MPG" that allows drivers to add real-world fuel economy statistics into a database on the EPA's fuel economy website and compare them with others and the original EPA test results.


Air quality and air pollution

The Air Quality Modeling Group (AQMG) is in the EPA's Office of Air and Radiation (OAR) and provides leadership and direction on the full range of air quality models, air pollution dispersion models[4][5] and other mathematical simulation techniques used in assessing pollution control strategies and the impacts of air pollution sources.

The AQMG serves as the focal point on air pollution modeling techniques for other EPA headquarters staff, EPA regional Offices, and State and local environmental agencies. It coordinates with the EPA's Office of Research and Development (ORD) on the development of new models and techniques, as well as wider issues of atmospheric research. Finally, the AQMG conducts modeling analyses to support the policy and regulatory decisions of the EPA's Office of

Air Quality Planning and Standards (OAQPS).

The AQMG is located in Research Triangle Park, North Carolina.


Oil Pollution Prevention

SPCC - Spill Prevention Containment and Counter Measures. Secondary Containment mandated at oil storage facilities. Oil release containment at oil development sites.


Libraries

In 2004, the Agency began a strategic planning exercise to develop plans for a more virtual approach to library services. The effort was curtailed in July 2005 when the Agency proposed a $2.5 million cut in its 2007 budget for libraries. Based on the proposed 2007 budget, the EPA posted a notice to the Federal Register, September 20, 2006 that EPA Headquarters Library would close its doors to walk-in patrons and visitors on October 1, 2006.[6]

The EPA has also closed three of its regional libraries and reduced hours in others, [7] using the same FY 2007 proposed budget numbers.


Controversies

DDT ban

In 1972 the EPA banned DDT because of its "unreasonable adverse effects on man and the environment."[8] Studies in the intervening years have demonstrated that while its acute effects on humans and primates are mild at worst, DDT and its degradants have a very heavy impact on aquatic life and the avian populations which feed on them.[9]


Mercury emissions

In March 2005, nine states, California, New York, New Jersey, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Maine, Connecticut, New Mexico and Vermont, sued the EPA. The EPA's inspector general had determined that the EPA's regulation of mercury emissions did not follow the Clean Air Act, and that the regulations were influenced by top political appointees.[10][11] The EPA had suppressed a study it commissioned by Harvard University which contradicted its position on mercury controls[12]. The suit alleges that the EPA's rule allowing exemption from "maximum available control technology" was illegal, and additionally charged that the EPA's system of pollution credit trading allows power plants to forego reducing mercury emissions.[13] Several states also began to enact their own mercury emission regulations. In one of the most stringent examples, Illinois' proposed rule would reduce mercury emissions from power plants by an average of 90% by 2009, with no trading allowed.[14]


Global warming

In June 2005, a memo revealed Philip Cooney, former chief of staff for the White House Council on Environmental Quality, and former lobbyist for the American Petroleum Institute, had personally edited documents, summarizing government research on climate change, before their release.[15]

Cooney resigned two days after the memo was published in The New York Times. Cooney said he had been planning to resign for over two years, implying the timing of his resignation was just a coincidence. Specifically, he said he had planned to resign to "spend time with his family."[16] One week after resigning he took a job at Exxon Mobil in their public affairs department. [17]


Greenhouse gas emissions

The Supreme Court ruled on April 2, 2007 in Massachusetts v. Environmental Protection Agency that the EPA has the authority to regulate the emission of greenhouse gases in automobile emissions, stating that "greenhouse gases fit well within the Clean Air Act capacious definition of air pollutant." The court also stated that the EPA must regulate in this area unless it is able to provide a scientific reason for not doing so.[18]


Fuel economy

In July 2005, an EPA report showing that auto companies were using loopholes to produce less fuel-efficient cars was delayed. The report was supposed to be released the day before a controversial energy bill was passed and would have provided backup for those opposed to it, but at the last minute the EPA delayed its release.[19]


Very fine airborne particulates

Tiny particles, under 2.5 micrometres, are attributed to health and mortality concerns[20] so some health advocates want EPA to regulate it. The science may be in its infancy although many conferences have discussed the trails of this airborne matter in the air. Foreign governments like Australia and most EU states have addressed this issue.

The EPA first established standards in 1997, and strengthened them in 2006. As with other standards, regulation and enforcement of the PM2.5 standards is the responsibility of the state governments, through State Implementation Plans.[21]


Review of air quality standards

Since its inception the EPA has begun to rely less and less on its scientists and more on nonscience personnel. EPA has recently changed their policies regarding limits for ground-level ozone, particulates, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide and lead. New policies will minimize scientist interaction in this process and rely more on policy makers who have minimal scientific knowledge. This new policy has been criticized by Democrats.[22]


EPA offices

• Office of Administration and Resources Management
  

• Office of Air and Radiation
  

• Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance
  

• Office of the Chief Financial Officer
  

• Office of General Counsel
  

• Office of Inspector General
  

• Office of International Affairs
  

• Office of Environmental Information
  

• Office of Prevention, Pesticides, and Toxic Substances
  

• Office of Research and Development
  

• Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response
  

• Office of Water

Each EPA regional office is responsible within its states for implementing the Agency's programs, except those programs that have been specifically delegated to states.

• Region 1 - responsible within the states of Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont.
  

• Region 2 - responsible within the states of New Jersey, New York, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands.
  

• Region 3 - responsible within the states of Delaware, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia, and the District of Columbia.
  

• Region 4 - responsible within the states of Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Tennessee.
  

• Region 5 - responsible within the states of Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, and Wisconsin.
  

• Region 6 - responsible within the states of Arkansas, Louisiana, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas.
  

• Region 7 - responsible within the states of Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, and Nebraska.
  

• Region 8 - responsible within the states of Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming.
  

• Region 9 - responsible within the states of Arizona, California, Hawaii, Nevada, and the territories of Guam and American Samoa.
  Region 10 - responsible within the states of Alaska, Idaho, Oregon, and Washington.

Each regional office also implements programs on Indian Tribal lands, except those programs delegated to Tribal authorities.


List of EPA administrators

• 1970–1973
  William D. Ruckelshaus
  

• 1973–1977
  Russell E. Train
  

• 1977–1981
  Douglas M. Costle
  

• 1981–1983
  Anne M. Gorsuch (Burford)
  

• 1983–1985
  William D. Ruckelshaus
  

• 1985–1989
  Lee M. Thomas
  

• 1989–1993
  William K. Reilly
  

• 1993–2001
  Carol M. Browner
  

• 2001–2003
  Christine Todd Whitman
  

• 2003–2005
  Michael O. Leavitt
  

• 2005—
  Stephen L. Johnson

Related legislation

The legislation here is general environmental protection legislation, and may also apply to other units of the government, including the Department of the Interior and the Department of Agriculture.


Air

• 1955 - Air Pollution Control Act PL 84-159
  
• 1963 - Clean Air Act PL 88-206
  
• 1965 - Motor Vehicle Air Pollution Control Act PL 89-272
  1966 - Clean Air Act Amendments PL 89-675
  1967 - Air Quality Act PL 90-148
  1969 - National Environmental Policy Act PL 91-190
  1970 - Clean Air Act Extension PL 91-604
  1976 - Toxic Substances Control Act PL 94-469
  1977 - Clean Air Act Amendments PL 95-95
  1990 - Clean Air Act Amendments PL 101-549

Water

• 1948 - Water Pollution Control Act PL 80-845
  

• 1965 - Water Quality Act PL 89-234
  

• 1966 - Clean Waters Restoration Act PL 89-753
  

• 1969 - National Environmental Policy Act PL 91-190
  

• 1970 - Water Quality Improvement Act PL 91-224
  

• 1972 - Water Pollution Control Act PL 92-500
  

• 1974 - Safe Drinking Water Act PL 93-523
  

• 1976 - Toxic Substances Control Act PL 94-469
  

• 1977 - Clean Water Act PL 95-217
  

• 1987 - Water Quality Act PL 100-4

Land

• 1964 - Wilderness Act PL 88-577
  

• 1968 - Scenic Rivers Preservation Act PL 90-542
  

• 1969 - National Environmental Policy Act PL 91-190
  

• 1970 - Wilderness Act PL 91-504
  

• 1977 - Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act PL 95-87
  

• 1978 - Wilderness Act PL 98-625
  

• 1980 - Alaska Land Protection Act PL 96-487
  

• 1994 - California Desert Protection Act PL 103-433
  

• 1996 - Food Quality Protection Act

Endangered species

• 1946 - Coordination Act PL 79-732
  

• 1966 - Endangered Species Preservation Act PL 89-669
  

• 1969 - Endangered Species Conservation Act PL 91-135
  

• 1972 - Marine Mammal Protection Act PL 92-522
  

• 1973 - Endangered Species Act PL 93-205

Hazardous waste

• 1965 - Solid Waste Disposal Act PL 89-272
  

• 1969 - National Environmental Policy Act PL 91-190
  

• 1970 - Resource Recovery Act PL 91-512
  

• 1976 - Resource Conservation and Recovery Act PL 94-580
  

• 1980 - Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act ("Superfund") PL 96-510
  

• 1982 - Nuclear Waste Repository Act PL 97-425
  

• 1984 - Hazardous and Solid Wastes Amendments Act PL 98-616
  

• 1986 - Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act PL 99-499
  

• 2002 - Small Business Liability Relief and Brownfields Revitalization Act ("Brownfields Law") PL 107-118

See also

Acid mine drainage

Air pollution

American Heritage Rivers

AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors

Atmospheric dispersion modeling

BioWatch

Category:Air dispersion modeling

List of waste management companies

List of waste management topics

List of solid waste treatment technologies

List of Superfund sites in the United States

Massachusetts v. Environmental Protection Agency

Office of Criminal Enforcement, Forensics and Training

Regulatory Flexibility Act

Renewable energy

U.S. Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board

Wise Use Movement


External links

US EPA Glossary

Environmental Protection Agency

Articles and documents from EPA's development 1970-

The environmental statutes for which EPA has primary responsibility

www.fueleconomy.gov

Collected Papers of William Sanjour, a retired EPA employee and whistleblower

Current 40 CFR Books in Digital Format

High Court Rules Against White House on Emissions, Breaking Legal News, April 2, 2007

Pollution prevention

Pollution prevention

The US Environmental Protection Agency has a number of P2 programs that can assist individuals and organizations to implement P2[1].


See also

Cleaner production

Environmentalism

Energy conservation

Green chemistry

Pollution control

Recycling

Waste management

Extended producer responsibility

Pay As You Throw


External links

United States National Pollution Prevention Information Center

United States Pollution Prevention Regional Information Center

NPPR Finds P2 Programs Effective

P2Gems Pollution prevention directory

Southwest Network for Zero Waste

Pollution Prevention Regional Information Center (P2RIC)