Civil engineering
Civil engineering is a
professional engineering discipline that deals with the design and construction of the physical and natural built environment, including works such as
bridges,
roads,
canals,
dams and
buildings.
[1][2][3] Civil engineering is the oldest
engineering discipline after
military engineering,
[4] and it was defined to distinguish it from military engineering.
[5] It is traditionally broken into several sub-disciplines including municipal engineering,
environmental engineering,
geotechnical engineering,
structural engineering,
transportation engineering,
water resources engineering,
materials engineering,
coastal engineering,
[4] surveying,
urban planning, and
construction engineering.
[6]History
Engineering has been an aspect of life since the beginnings of human existence. Civil engineering might be considered properly commencing between
4000 and
2000 BC in
Ancient Egypt and
Mesopotamia when humans started to abandon a
nomadic existence, thus causing a need for the construction of
shelter. During this time,
transportation became increasingly important leading to the development of the
wheel and
sailing. The construction of
Pyramids in Egypt (circa 2700-2500 BC) might be considered the first instances of large structure constructions. Other ancient historic civil engineering constructions include the
Parthenon by
Iktinos in
Ancient Greece (447-438 BC), the
Appian Way by
Roman engineers (c. 312 BC), and the
Great Wall of China by General
Meng T'ien under orders from Ch'in Emperor
Shih Huang Ti (c. 220 BC).
[6]In ancient times, engineers were typically referred to as
architects or master builders.[
citation needed] In the 18th century, the term civil engineering was first used to recognize it as a separate field from military engineering.
[5] The first self-proclaimed civil engineer was
John Smeaton who constructed the
Eddystone Lighthouse.
[6][4]The first degree in Civil Engineering in the United States was awarded by
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1835.
[7]Education and licensureCivil engineers typically possess an
academic degree with a major in civil engineering. The length of study for such a degree is usually four or five years and the completed degree is usually designated as a
Bachelor of Science, though some universities designate the degree as a
Bachelor of Engineering. The degree generally includes units covering
physics,
mathematics,
project management,
design and specific topics in civil engineering. Initially such topics cover most, if not all, of the sub-disciplines of civil engineering. Students then choose to specialize in one or more sub-disciplines towards the end of the degree.
[8]About one-third of civil engineers also choose to pursue a postgraduate degree such as a
Master of Engineering,
Master of Science, or a
Doctor of Philosophy in Engineering. The Master of Engineering degree may consist of either
research,
coursework or a mixture of the two. The Doctor of Philosophy consists of a significant research component and is often viewed as the entry point to
academia.
[9] In the United Kingdom and various other European countries, the Master of Engineering is often considered an undergraduate degree of slightly longer duration than the Bachelor of Engineering.
In most countries, a Bachelor's degree in engineering represents the first step towards
professional certification and the degree program itself is certified by a
professional body. After completing a certified degree program the engineer must satisfy a range of requirements (including work experience and exam requirements) before being certified. Once certified, the engineer is designated the title of
Professional Engineer (in the United States, Canada and
South Africa),
Chartered Engineer (in
India, the
United Kingdom,
Ireland and
Zimbabwe),
Chartered Professional Engineer (in
Australia and
New Zealand), or
European Engineer (in much of the
European Union). There are international engineering agreements which are designed to allow engineers to practice across international borders. In general, these agreements require both educational competencies and professional experiential competencies.[
citation needed]
The advantages of certification vary depending upon location. For example, in the United States and Canada "only a licensed engineer may prepare, sign and seal, and submit engineering plans and drawings to a public authority for approval, or seal engineering work for public and private clients.".
[10] This requirement is enforced by state and provincial legislation such as
Quebec's Engineers Act.
[11] In other countries, such as Australia, no such legislation exists. Practically all certifying bodies maintain a
code of ethics that they expect all members to abide by or risk expulsion.
[12] In this way, these organizations play an important role in maintaining ethical standards for the profession. Even in jurisdictions where certification has little or no legal bearing on work, engineers are subject to
contract law. In cases where an engineer's work fails he or she may be subject to the
tort of negligence and, in extreme cases, the charge of
criminal negligence.[
citation needed] An engineer's work must also comply with numerous other rules and regulations such as
building codes and legislation pertaining to
environmental law.
CareersIn the United States, there is no one typical career path for civil engineers. Most engineering graduates start with jobs of low responsibility, and as they prove their competence, are given more and more responsible tasks, but within each subfield of civil engineering, and even within different segments of the market within each branch, the details of a career path can vary. In some fields and in some firms, entry-level engineers are put to work primarily monitoring construction in the field, serving as the "eyes and ears" of more senior design engineers; while in other areas, entry-level engineers end up performing the more routine tasks of analysis or design and interpretation. More senior engineers can move into doing more complex analysis or design work, or management of more complex design projects, or management of other engineers, or into specialized consulting, including
forensic engineering.
Sub-disciplines
In general, civil engineering is concerned with the overall interface of human created fixed projects with the greater world. General civil engineers work closely with surveyors and specialized civil engineers to fit and serve fixed projects within their given site, community and terrain by designing grading, drainage,
pavement, water supply, sewer service, electric and communications supply, and land divisions. General engineers spend much of their time visiting project sites, developing community consensus, and preparing construction plans. General civil engineering is also referred to as site engineering; a branch of civil engineering that primarily focuses on converting a tract of land from one usage to another. Civil engineers typically apply the principles of geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, environmental engineering, transportation engineering and construction engineering to residential, commercial, industrial and public works projects of all sizes and levels of construction.
Construction engineeringConstruction engineering involves planning and execution of the designs from transportation, site development, hydraulic, environmental, structural and geotechnical engineers. As construction firms tend to have higher business risk than other types of civil engineering firms, many construction engineers tend to take on a role that is more business-like in nature: drafting and reviewing
contracts, evaluating
logistical operations, and closely-monitoring prices of necessary supplies.
Environmental engineeringEnvironmental engineering deals with the treatment of chemical, biological, and/or thermal waste, the purification of water and air, and the
remediation of contaminated sites, due to prior waste disposal or accidental contamination. Among the topics covered by environmental engineering are pollutant transport,
water purification,
sewage treatment, and
hazardous waste management. Environmental engineers can be involved with pollution reduction, green engineering, and
industrial ecology. Environmental engineering also deals with the gathering of information on the environmental consequences of proposed actions and the assessment of effects of proposed actions for the purpose of assisting society and policy makers in the decision making process.
Environmental engineering is the contemporary term for
sanitary engineering, though sanitary engineering traditionally had not included much of the hazardous waste management and environmental remediation work covered by the term environmental engineering. Some other terms in use are public health engineering and environmental health engineering.
Geotechnical engineeringGeotechnical engineering is an area of civil engineering concerned with the
rock and
soil that civil engineering systems are supported by. Knowledge from the fields of
geology,
material science and testing,
mechanics, and
hydraulics are applied by geotechnical engineers to safely and economically design
foundations,
retaining walls, and similar structures. Environmental concerns in relation to
groundwater and
waste disposal have spawned a new area of study called geoenvironmental engineering where
biology and
chemistry are important.
[13][14]Some of the unique difficulties of geotechnical engineering are the result of the variability and properties of soil.
Boundary conditions are often well defined in other branches of civil engineering, but with soil, clearly defining these conditions can be impossible. The material properties and behavior of soil are also difficult to predict due to the variability of soil and limited
investigation. This contrasts with the relatively well defined material properties of
steel and
concrete used in other areas of civil engineering.
Soil mechanics, which define the behavior of soil, is complex due to
stress-dependent material properties such as volume change, stress–strain relationship, and
strength.
[13]Hydraulic engineeringHydraulic engineering is concerned with the flow and conveyance of fluids, principally water. This area of civil engineering is intimately related to the design of
pipelines,
water distribution systems, drainage facilities (including
bridges,
dams,
channels,
culverts,
levees,
storm sewers), and
canals. Hydraulic engineers design these facilities using the concepts of
fluid pressure,
fluid statics,
fluid dynamics, and
hydraulics, among others. Water resources engineering is concerned with the collection and management of water (as a
natural resource). As a discipline it therefore combines
hydrology,
environmental science,
meteorology,
geology,
conservation, and
resource management. This area of civil engineering relates to the prediction and management of both the quality and the quantity of water in both underground (
aquifers) and above ground (lakes, rivers, and streams) resources. Water resource engineers analyze and model very small to very large areas of the earth to predict the amount and content of water as it flows into, through, or out of a facility. Although the actual design of the facility may be left to other engineers.
Materials scienceCivil engineering also includes elements of
materials science. Construction materials with broad applications in civil engineering include ceramics such as Portland cement concrete (PCC) and hot mix asphalt concrete, metals such as aluminum and steel, and polymers such as polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) and carbon fibers. Current research in these areas focus around increased strength, durability, workability, and reduced cost.
Structural engineeringStructural engineering is concerned with the
structural design and
structural analysis of
buildings, bridges, and other
structures. This involves calculating the stresses and forces that act upon or arise within a structure, and designing the structure to successfully resist those forces and stresses. Resistance to wind and seismic loadings, especially performance near
resonant frequencies, which affect the overall stability of a structure, are major design concerns. Other factors such as durability and cost are also considered. In addition to design of new buildings, structural engineers may design a
seismic retrofit for an existing structure to mitigate undesirable performance during
earthquakes.
Surveying
Surveying is the process by which a surveyor measures certain dimensions that generally occur on the surface of the Earth. Modern surveying equipment, such as EDM's, total stations, GPS surveying and laser scanning, allow for remarkably accurate measurement of angular deviation, horizontal, vertical and slope distances. This information is crucial to convert the data into a graphical representation of the Earth's surface, in the form of a map. This information is then used by civil engineers, Contractors and even realtors to design from, build on, and trade, respectively. Elements of a building or structure must be correctly sized and positioned in relation to each other and to site boundaries and adjacent structures. Civil engineers are trained in the methods of surveying and may seek professional land surveyor status.
Transportation engineeringTransportation engineering is concerned with moving people and goods efficiently, safely, and in a manner conducive to a vibrant community. This involves specifying, designing, constructing, and maintaining transportation infrastructure which includes
streets,
canals,
highways,
rail systems,
airports,
ports, and
mass transit. It includes areas such as transportation design,
transportation planning,
traffic engineering,
urban engineering,
queueing theory,
pavement engineering,
Intelligent Transportation System (ITS), and infrastructure management.
Civil Engineering vis a vis ArchitectureHistorically the science and art of construction was taught and passed on from Master to apprentice. In order to learn a trade people would often travel great distances and try to prove themselves worthy of learning the trade. Construction and its techniques were passed on thus for millenia. Architects in the past were thus civil engineers too and there was no distinction between the trades.
The separation occurred in the 19th century with the establishment of the
Ecole des Beaux-Arts which taught Architecture as a distinct discipline. Architecture henceforth was concerned with the 'qualitative' nature of construction and Civil Engineers are required to design the structural framework which supports it all. The increasing sophistication of construction projects requires the collaboration of not just architects and civil engineers but also mechanical, electrical, sanitary engineers etc. Some of the greatest architects in the 20th century were qualified civil engineers too.
Buckminster Fuller is a notable mention.
See alsoCivil engineerList of civil engineersList of historic civil engineering landmarksAssociations
American Society of Civil EngineersChi Epsilon, a civil engineering honor society
Institution of Civil Engineers
