Built environment
The phrase built environment refers to the man-made surroundings that provide the setting for human activity, ranging from the large-scale civic surroundings to the personal places.
In architecture and environmental psychology, the phrase is a useful acknowledgement that a small fraction of buildings constructed annually, even in the industrialized world, are designed by architects, and that users of the built environment encounter issues that cross the traditional professional boundaries between urban planners, traffic engineers, zoning authorities, architects, interior designers, industrial designers, etc. Historically, much of the built environment has taken the form of vernacular architecture, and this is still the case in large parts of the world. In the industrialized world, many buildings are produced by large scale development remote from its eventual users.
In landscape architecture, the built environment is identified as opposed to the natural environment, with the recognition that places like Central Park may have the look, feel, and nourishing quality of natural surroundings while being completely artificial and "built", thus blurring the line between the two.
In urban planning, the phrase connotes the idea that a large percentage of the human environment is manmade, and these artificial surroundings are so extensive and cohesive that they function as organisms in the consumption of resources, disposal of wastes, and facilitation of productive enterprise within its bounds.Recently there has also been considerable dialogue and research into the impact of the built environment's impact on population health (see www.activelivingbydesign.org).
See also
Urbanism
City planning
Architecture
Vernacular architecture
Sustainable vernacular architecture
Landscape
Landscape architecture
Interior architecture
Construction
Environmental Design Research Association
International_Association_of_People-Environment_Studies
Cultural landscape
Environmental psychology
Ward 49 of the City of Chicago includes most of Rogers Park and parts of West Ridge.
Wednesday, December 5, 2007
Art conservation and restoration
Art conservation and restoration
Conservation is the profession devoted to the preservation of cultural property for the future. Conservation activities include examination, documentation, treatment, and preventive care, supported by research and education. (Definition taken from the Core Documents of The American Institute for Conservation of Historic & Artistic Works - see external links.) Preventive conservation is an important element of museum policy and collections care. It is an essential responsibility of members of the museum profession to create and maintain a protective environment for the collections in their care, whether in store, on display, or in transit. A museum should carefully monitor the condition of collections to determine when an object or specimen may require conservation-restoration work and the services of a qualified conservator-restorer. The principal goal should be the stabilisation of the object or specimen. All conservation procedures should be documented and as reversible as possible, and all alterations should be clearly distinguishable from the original object or specimen. (Definitions taken from The ICOM Code of Professional Ethics - see external links.) Art conservation is not identical to art restoration. Restoration is a process that attempts to return the work of art to some previous state that restorer imagines to be "original". This was commonly done in the past. However, in the late 20th century a separate concept of conservation was developed that is more concerned with preserving the work of art for the future, and less with making it look pristine. Restoration is controversial, since it often involves some irreversible change to the original material of the artwork with the goal of making it "look good." The attitude of restorers in recent years is to make all the restoration they undertake reversible. The use of watercolor paints to inpaint damages on fresco is an example of a technique utilized to achieve almost complete reversibility.
Art conservation can involve the cleaning and stabilization of art work. Ideally, any process used is reversible, departures from that ideal not being undertaken lightly. Cleaning is not a reversible process and can sometimes be controversial due to fears that cleaning would damage a piece, or on the grounds that damage or residue forms part of the history of a given piece and should not be modified. Michaelangelo's statue of David has undergone two cleanings to remove dirt that had accumulated on the statue's surface.
In North America, five colleges/universities offer a graduate degree in art conservation:
In addition, the University of Texas, Austin offers a Certificate of Advanced Study in the conservation of library and archival materials as part of its Master of Science in Information Studies program.
United States Conservation Associations
American Institute for Conservation [1]
Bay Area Conservation Guild
Chicago Area Conservation Guild
Intermuseum Conservation Association [2]
Louisiana Art Conservation Alliance
Midwest Regional Conservation Guild [3]
New England Conservation Association
New York Regional Association for Conservation
Southeast Regional Conservation Association
Virginia Conservation Association
Washington Conservation Guild
Western Association for Art Conservation
Western New York Conservation Guild
See also
ArtWatch International
Cultural heritage
External links
Icon, the Institute of Conservation (UK Professional body)
Lunder Conservation Center
Freeview Video 'Science and Fine Art' by David Bomford of the National Gallery. A Royal Institution Lecture showing how scientific techniques aid conservation by the Vega Science Trust.
The American Institute for Conservation of Historic & Artistic Works
ICOM-CC - International Council of Museums Committee for Conservation
ICOM Code of Ethics
Observatory for the Protection of Cultural and Environmental Heritage in areas of crisis
Conservation OnLine
Objects Conservation - Provided by the Division of Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History.
DOCAM - Documentation and Conservation of the Media Arts Heritage
IIC International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works
Intermuseum Conservation Association
Conservation Report on Mukul Dey Archives by C. B. Gupta
Conservation is the profession devoted to the preservation of cultural property for the future. Conservation activities include examination, documentation, treatment, and preventive care, supported by research and education. (Definition taken from the Core Documents of The American Institute for Conservation of Historic & Artistic Works - see external links.) Preventive conservation is an important element of museum policy and collections care. It is an essential responsibility of members of the museum profession to create and maintain a protective environment for the collections in their care, whether in store, on display, or in transit. A museum should carefully monitor the condition of collections to determine when an object or specimen may require conservation-restoration work and the services of a qualified conservator-restorer. The principal goal should be the stabilisation of the object or specimen. All conservation procedures should be documented and as reversible as possible, and all alterations should be clearly distinguishable from the original object or specimen. (Definitions taken from The ICOM Code of Professional Ethics - see external links.) Art conservation is not identical to art restoration. Restoration is a process that attempts to return the work of art to some previous state that restorer imagines to be "original". This was commonly done in the past. However, in the late 20th century a separate concept of conservation was developed that is more concerned with preserving the work of art for the future, and less with making it look pristine. Restoration is controversial, since it often involves some irreversible change to the original material of the artwork with the goal of making it "look good." The attitude of restorers in recent years is to make all the restoration they undertake reversible. The use of watercolor paints to inpaint damages on fresco is an example of a technique utilized to achieve almost complete reversibility.
Art conservation can involve the cleaning and stabilization of art work. Ideally, any process used is reversible, departures from that ideal not being undertaken lightly. Cleaning is not a reversible process and can sometimes be controversial due to fears that cleaning would damage a piece, or on the grounds that damage or residue forms part of the history of a given piece and should not be modified. Michaelangelo's statue of David has undergone two cleanings to remove dirt that had accumulated on the statue's surface.
In North America, five colleges/universities offer a graduate degree in art conservation:
- The University of Delaware (in association with Winterthur Museum)
- Buffalo State College, New York
- University of California, Los Angeles/Getty Program in Archaeological and Ethnographic Conservation
In addition, the University of Texas, Austin offers a Certificate of Advanced Study in the conservation of library and archival materials as part of its Master of Science in Information Studies program.
United States Conservation Associations
American Institute for Conservation [1]
Bay Area Conservation Guild
Chicago Area Conservation Guild
Intermuseum Conservation Association [2]
Louisiana Art Conservation Alliance
Midwest Regional Conservation Guild [3]
New England Conservation Association
New York Regional Association for Conservation
Southeast Regional Conservation Association
Virginia Conservation Association
Washington Conservation Guild
Western Association for Art Conservation
Western New York Conservation Guild
See also
ArtWatch International
Cultural heritage
External links
Icon, the Institute of Conservation (UK Professional body)
Lunder Conservation Center
Freeview Video 'Science and Fine Art' by David Bomford of the National Gallery. A Royal Institution Lecture showing how scientific techniques aid conservation by the Vega Science Trust.
The American Institute for Conservation of Historic & Artistic Works
ICOM-CC - International Council of Museums Committee for Conservation
ICOM Code of Ethics
Observatory for the Protection of Cultural and Environmental Heritage in areas of crisis
Conservation OnLine
Objects Conservation - Provided by the Division of Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History.
DOCAM - Documentation and Conservation of the Media Arts Heritage
IIC International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works
Intermuseum Conservation Association
Conservation Report on Mukul Dey Archives by C. B. Gupta
Architectural conservation
Architectural conservation
Architectural conservation describes the process through which the material, historical, and design integrity of mankind's built heritage are prolonged through carefully planned interventions. The individual engaged in this pursuit is known as an architectural conservator. Decisions of when and how to engage in an intervention are critical to the ultimate conservation of the immovable object. Ultimately, the decision is value based: a combination of artistic, contextual, and informational values is normally considered. In some cases, a decision to not intervene may be the most appropriate choice.
Narrow definition
Architectural conservation deals with issues of prolonging the life and integrity of architectural materials, such as stone, brick, glass, metal, and wood. In this sense, the term refers to the "professional use of a combination of science, art, craft, and technology as a preservation tool" [1] and is allied with its parent field, art conservation.
Broad definition
In addition to the art/science definition described above, architectural conservation may refer to issues of identification, policy, regulation, and advocacy associated with the entirety of the older built environment. This broader scope recognizes that society must have mechanisms to identity and value historic cultural resources, create laws to protect these resources, and develop policies and management plans for interpretation, protection, and education.
Regional usage
In the United States, architectural conservation is used in the narrow sense and applies to the art/scientific treatment of cultural heritage and is considered to be a subset of historic preservation. In most other areas of the world, architectural conservation is used broadly for all aspects of the older built environment and is a subset of heritage conservation or cultural patrimony.[2]
In Asia where many of the fast developing and redeveloping cities are facing the issue of protecting its built heritage, architectural conservation becomes synonymous with urban conservation. A case in point is Singapore, where the government's Urban Redevelopment Authority[3] directs urban planning and urban architectural conservation.
In China, heritage conservation is divided into archaeology and architectural conservation. Increasingly, heritage conservation, be they of underground or above ground nature, is employed as the means to the economic end of tourism development. Regional governments in China are realizing the economic potential (through domestic and international tourism) of having World Heritage Sites in their possession, and there has been a flurry to apply for listing of heritage sites on the UNESCO World Heritage List.
The threat of over-commercialization of heritage sites with World Heritage status in China to cater to the hordes of domestic and foreign tourists, as already happened to the historic town of Lijiang, has highlighted the importance of the field of cultural heritage management--how to maintain the site in a sustainable way after it has been proper conserved and opened to visitors. Hence, architectural Conservation in the Chinese context is increasingly more closely allied with heritage management and tourism studies.
Related journals
International Journal of Architectural Heritage
Journal of the American Institute for Conservation
See also
Historic Preservation
Art conservation and restoration
Materials science
Category:Heritage organizations
English Heritage
List of historic houses
National Register of Historic Places
National Trusts worldwide
World Heritage Sites
External links
Icon, the Institute of Conservation (UK Professional body)*
Yin Yu Tang: A Chinese Home Residing in Salem, Ma this authentic and fully rebuilt Chinese house of the Huang family, offers an in depth and interactive look into accurately restored Chinese architecture of the Qing dynasty.
Asian Academy for Heritage Management, a virtual institute under UNESCO Bangkok's Office of the Regional Advisor for Culture in Asia and the Pacific.
UNESCO Asia-Pacific Heritage Awards for Culture Heritage Conservation.
Architectural Conservation Programme at The University of Hong Kong, Asia's leading postgraduate-level professional programme in built-heritage conservation.
Cultural Heritage Management Programme in the School of Professional and Continuing Education at The University of Hong Kong, a postgraduate-level professional programme that focuses on the management of cultural heritage assets.
American Institute for Conservation, the professional body in the US representing practitioners of architectural conservation.
Parks Canada, the official Canadian government agency responsible for the conservation of Canada's natural and cultural (tangible and intangible) heritage.
English Heritage, the official British government agency responsible for the conservation of English heritage.
Historic Scotland, the official British government agency responsible for the conservation of Scottish heritage.
Antiquities and Monuments Office, the official agency of the Hong Kong Government responsible for the conservation of local cultural heritage.
Heritage of Malaysia Trust, the quasi-government agency in Malaysia responsible for the conservation of local cultural heritage.
Architectural conservation describes the process through which the material, historical, and design integrity of mankind's built heritage are prolonged through carefully planned interventions. The individual engaged in this pursuit is known as an architectural conservator. Decisions of when and how to engage in an intervention are critical to the ultimate conservation of the immovable object. Ultimately, the decision is value based: a combination of artistic, contextual, and informational values is normally considered. In some cases, a decision to not intervene may be the most appropriate choice.
Narrow definition
Architectural conservation deals with issues of prolonging the life and integrity of architectural materials, such as stone, brick, glass, metal, and wood. In this sense, the term refers to the "professional use of a combination of science, art, craft, and technology as a preservation tool" [1] and is allied with its parent field, art conservation.
Broad definition
In addition to the art/science definition described above, architectural conservation may refer to issues of identification, policy, regulation, and advocacy associated with the entirety of the older built environment. This broader scope recognizes that society must have mechanisms to identity and value historic cultural resources, create laws to protect these resources, and develop policies and management plans for interpretation, protection, and education.
Regional usage
In the United States, architectural conservation is used in the narrow sense and applies to the art/scientific treatment of cultural heritage and is considered to be a subset of historic preservation. In most other areas of the world, architectural conservation is used broadly for all aspects of the older built environment and is a subset of heritage conservation or cultural patrimony.[2]
In Asia where many of the fast developing and redeveloping cities are facing the issue of protecting its built heritage, architectural conservation becomes synonymous with urban conservation. A case in point is Singapore, where the government's Urban Redevelopment Authority[3] directs urban planning and urban architectural conservation.
In China, heritage conservation is divided into archaeology and architectural conservation. Increasingly, heritage conservation, be they of underground or above ground nature, is employed as the means to the economic end of tourism development. Regional governments in China are realizing the economic potential (through domestic and international tourism) of having World Heritage Sites in their possession, and there has been a flurry to apply for listing of heritage sites on the UNESCO World Heritage List.
The threat of over-commercialization of heritage sites with World Heritage status in China to cater to the hordes of domestic and foreign tourists, as already happened to the historic town of Lijiang, has highlighted the importance of the field of cultural heritage management--how to maintain the site in a sustainable way after it has been proper conserved and opened to visitors. Hence, architectural Conservation in the Chinese context is increasingly more closely allied with heritage management and tourism studies.
Related journals
International Journal of Architectural Heritage
Journal of the American Institute for Conservation
See also
Historic Preservation
Art conservation and restoration
Materials science
Category:Heritage organizations
English Heritage
List of historic houses
National Register of Historic Places
National Trusts worldwide
World Heritage Sites
External links
Icon, the Institute of Conservation (UK Professional body)*
Yin Yu Tang: A Chinese Home Residing in Salem, Ma this authentic and fully rebuilt Chinese house of the Huang family, offers an in depth and interactive look into accurately restored Chinese architecture of the Qing dynasty.
Asian Academy for Heritage Management, a virtual institute under UNESCO Bangkok's Office of the Regional Advisor for Culture in Asia and the Pacific.
UNESCO Asia-Pacific Heritage Awards for Culture Heritage Conservation.
Architectural Conservation Programme at The University of Hong Kong, Asia's leading postgraduate-level professional programme in built-heritage conservation.
Cultural Heritage Management Programme in the School of Professional and Continuing Education at The University of Hong Kong, a postgraduate-level professional programme that focuses on the management of cultural heritage assets.
American Institute for Conservation, the professional body in the US representing practitioners of architectural conservation.
Parks Canada, the official Canadian government agency responsible for the conservation of Canada's natural and cultural (tangible and intangible) heritage.
English Heritage, the official British government agency responsible for the conservation of English heritage.
Historic Scotland, the official British government agency responsible for the conservation of Scottish heritage.
Antiquities and Monuments Office, the official agency of the Hong Kong Government responsible for the conservation of local cultural heritage.
Heritage of Malaysia Trust, the quasi-government agency in Malaysia responsible for the conservation of local cultural heritage.
Historic preservation
Historic preservation
Historic preservation is the act of maintaining and repairing existing historic materials and the retention of a property's form as it has evolved over time. When considering the United States Department of Interior's interpretation: "Preservation calls for the existing form, materials, features, and detailing of a property to be retained and preserved. This may include preliminary measures to protect and stabilize it prior to undertaking other work--or protection and stabilization may be an end in itself, for example, in an archaeological project".[1] Historic Preservation is a tool to save older buildings.
History
In England, Antiquarian interests were a familiar gentleman's pursuit since the mid 17th century, developing in tandem with the rise in scientific curiosity. Fellows of the Royal Society were often also Fellows of the Society of Antiquaries[citation needed]. The UK's Ancient Monuments Act of 1913 officially preserved certain decayed and obsolete structures of intrinsic historical and associative interest, just as Modernism was lending moral authority to destruction of the built heritage in the name of progress.[citation needed] The UK's National Trust began with the preservation of historic houses and has steadily increased its scope. In the UK's subsequent Town and Planning Act (1944), and the Town and Country Planning Act 1990, steps were taken toward historic preservation on an unprecedented scale.[citation needed] Concern about the demolition of historic buildings arose in institutions such as the pressure group The Society for the Preservation of Historic Buildings, which appealed against demolition and neglect on a case by case basis.[2]
In The United States one of the first major Historic Preservation undertakings was that of George Washington's Mount Vernon in 1858.[3] Founded in 1889, the Richmond, Virginia-based Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities was the United States' first statewide historic preservation group.[citation needed] The US National Trust for Historic Preservation, another privately funded non-profit organization, began in 1949 with a handful of privileged structures and has developed goals that provide "leadership, education, advocacy, and resources to save America's diverse historic places and revitalize our communities" according to the Trust's mission statement. In 1951 the Trust assumed responsibility for its first museum property, Woodlawn Plantation in northern Virginia. Twenty-eight sites in all have subsequently become part of the National Trust, representing the cultural diversity of American history. In New York City, the destruction of Pennsylvania Station in 1964 shocked many in that city into supporting preservation. On an international level, the New York-based World Monuments Fund was founded in 1965 to preserve historic sites all over the world.
Under the direction of James Marston Fitch, the first advanced-degree historic preservation program began at Columbia University in 1964.[4] It became the model on which most other graduate historic preservation programs were created.[5] Many other programs were to follow before 1980: M.A. in Preservation Planning from Cornell (1975); M.S. in Historic Preservation from the University of Vermont (1975); M.S. in Historic Preservation Studies from Boston University (1976); and M.S. in Historic Preservation from Eastern Michigan University (1979).
The first undergraduate programs (B.A.) appeared in 1977 from Goucher College and Roger Williams College.[6]
Historic districts
A Historic district in the United States is a group of buildings, properties or sites that have been designated by one of several entities on different levels as historically or architecturally significant. Buildings, structures, objects and sites within a historic district are normally divided into two categories, contributing and non-contributing. Districts greatly vary in size, some having hundreds of structures while others have just a few.
The U.S. federal government designates historic districts through the U.S. Department of Interior, under the auspices of the National Park Service. Federally designated historic districts are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.[7]
A similar concept exists in the United Kingdom: a Conservation area is designated in accordance with the Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas) Act 1990 in order to protect a zone in which there are buildings of architectural or cultural heritage interest.
Preserving historic landscapes
The United States led the world in the creation of National Parks, areas of unspoiled natural wilderness, where the intrusion of civilization are intentionally minimal.[citation needed]
In addition to preserving the natural heritage, the U.S. Park Service also maintains the National Register of Historic Places to recognize significant buildings and places, including historic parks, battlefields, National Historic Landmarks, memorials and monuments.
Landscapes and sites of outstanding universal value can be designated as World Heritage Sites. A requirement of such designation is that the designating nation has appropriate legislation in place to preserve them.
Careers
Although volunteers have traditionally engaged in historic preservation activities, since the 1960s, the field has seen an increased level of professionalization. Today, there are many career options in historic preservation. Institutes of secondary education (universities, colleges, etc.) in the United States offer both certificate and degree (A.A.S, B.A., B.F.A., B.S., M.A., M.F.A., M.S., and PhD) programs in historic preservation.[9] Some students—at schools with such programs available—choose to enroll in "joint degree" programs, earning a degree in historic preservation along with one in another, related subject, often an MArch, MUP or JD degree.
Possible career fields include:
Historic preservation planner (local/county/state level)
State Historic Preservation Officer
Preservation Architect
Preservation Engineer
Resource interpreters
Public historian
Historic site administrator
Consultant for Section 106 reviews in accordance with the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966
Director or staff of a local, regional, statewide, or national preservation non-profit such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation
Traditional trades practitioner.
See also
Architectural conservation
Adaptive reuse
Category:Demolished buildings and structures
Category:Heritage organizations
List of historic houses
National Register of Historic Places
National Trusts worldwide
World Heritage Sites
External links
The Annapolis Collection Story from Baltilore Sun
National Trust For Historic Preservation
Advisory Council on Historic Preservation
Standards and Guidelines for the Conservation of Historic Places in Canada
PreserveNet: A Cornell-affiliated web page designed to provide preservationists with a comprehensive database of regularly updated internet resources and current professional opportunities.
PreservationDirectory.com: A resource for historic preservation, building restoration and cultural resource management in the US and Canada
The Association for Preservation Technology International (APT): is a cross-disciplinary, membership organization dedicated to promoting the best technology for conserving historic structures and their settings.
Preservation Trades Network (PTN): membership community organization focused on traditional trades practitioners and allied professionals in the international preservation industry
Preservation News Vol. 1 (1961) - Vol. 35 no. 1 (Feb/March 1995). Monthly publication of the Preservation Press of the National Trust for Historic Preservation of the United States.
National Council for Preservation Education: (NCPE) Guide to over fifty academic programs in historic preservation and allied fields in the United States and other information
WWW-VL US Historic Preservation Virtual Library of resources for preservation, including green LEED examples
Historic preservation is the act of maintaining and repairing existing historic materials and the retention of a property's form as it has evolved over time. When considering the United States Department of Interior's interpretation: "Preservation calls for the existing form, materials, features, and detailing of a property to be retained and preserved. This may include preliminary measures to protect and stabilize it prior to undertaking other work--or protection and stabilization may be an end in itself, for example, in an archaeological project".[1] Historic Preservation is a tool to save older buildings.
History
In England, Antiquarian interests were a familiar gentleman's pursuit since the mid 17th century, developing in tandem with the rise in scientific curiosity. Fellows of the Royal Society were often also Fellows of the Society of Antiquaries[citation needed]. The UK's Ancient Monuments Act of 1913 officially preserved certain decayed and obsolete structures of intrinsic historical and associative interest, just as Modernism was lending moral authority to destruction of the built heritage in the name of progress.[citation needed] The UK's National Trust began with the preservation of historic houses and has steadily increased its scope. In the UK's subsequent Town and Planning Act (1944), and the Town and Country Planning Act 1990, steps were taken toward historic preservation on an unprecedented scale.[citation needed] Concern about the demolition of historic buildings arose in institutions such as the pressure group The Society for the Preservation of Historic Buildings, which appealed against demolition and neglect on a case by case basis.[2]
In The United States one of the first major Historic Preservation undertakings was that of George Washington's Mount Vernon in 1858.[3] Founded in 1889, the Richmond, Virginia-based Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities was the United States' first statewide historic preservation group.[citation needed] The US National Trust for Historic Preservation, another privately funded non-profit organization, began in 1949 with a handful of privileged structures and has developed goals that provide "leadership, education, advocacy, and resources to save America's diverse historic places and revitalize our communities" according to the Trust's mission statement. In 1951 the Trust assumed responsibility for its first museum property, Woodlawn Plantation in northern Virginia. Twenty-eight sites in all have subsequently become part of the National Trust, representing the cultural diversity of American history. In New York City, the destruction of Pennsylvania Station in 1964 shocked many in that city into supporting preservation. On an international level, the New York-based World Monuments Fund was founded in 1965 to preserve historic sites all over the world.
Under the direction of James Marston Fitch, the first advanced-degree historic preservation program began at Columbia University in 1964.[4] It became the model on which most other graduate historic preservation programs were created.[5] Many other programs were to follow before 1980: M.A. in Preservation Planning from Cornell (1975); M.S. in Historic Preservation from the University of Vermont (1975); M.S. in Historic Preservation Studies from Boston University (1976); and M.S. in Historic Preservation from Eastern Michigan University (1979).
The first undergraduate programs (B.A.) appeared in 1977 from Goucher College and Roger Williams College.[6]
Historic districts
A Historic district in the United States is a group of buildings, properties or sites that have been designated by one of several entities on different levels as historically or architecturally significant. Buildings, structures, objects and sites within a historic district are normally divided into two categories, contributing and non-contributing. Districts greatly vary in size, some having hundreds of structures while others have just a few.
The U.S. federal government designates historic districts through the U.S. Department of Interior, under the auspices of the National Park Service. Federally designated historic districts are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.[7]
A similar concept exists in the United Kingdom: a Conservation area is designated in accordance with the Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas) Act 1990 in order to protect a zone in which there are buildings of architectural or cultural heritage interest.
Preserving historic landscapes
The United States led the world in the creation of National Parks, areas of unspoiled natural wilderness, where the intrusion of civilization are intentionally minimal.[citation needed]
In addition to preserving the natural heritage, the U.S. Park Service also maintains the National Register of Historic Places to recognize significant buildings and places, including historic parks, battlefields, National Historic Landmarks, memorials and monuments.
Landscapes and sites of outstanding universal value can be designated as World Heritage Sites. A requirement of such designation is that the designating nation has appropriate legislation in place to preserve them.
Careers
Although volunteers have traditionally engaged in historic preservation activities, since the 1960s, the field has seen an increased level of professionalization. Today, there are many career options in historic preservation. Institutes of secondary education (universities, colleges, etc.) in the United States offer both certificate and degree (A.A.S, B.A., B.F.A., B.S., M.A., M.F.A., M.S., and PhD) programs in historic preservation.[9] Some students—at schools with such programs available—choose to enroll in "joint degree" programs, earning a degree in historic preservation along with one in another, related subject, often an MArch, MUP or JD degree.
Possible career fields include:
Historic preservation planner (local/county/state level)
State Historic Preservation Officer
Preservation Architect
Preservation Engineer
Resource interpreters
Public historian
Historic site administrator
Consultant for Section 106 reviews in accordance with the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966
Director or staff of a local, regional, statewide, or national preservation non-profit such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation
Traditional trades practitioner.
See also
Architectural conservation
Adaptive reuse
Category:Demolished buildings and structures
Category:Heritage organizations
List of historic houses
National Register of Historic Places
National Trusts worldwide
World Heritage Sites
External links
The Annapolis Collection Story from Baltilore Sun
National Trust For Historic Preservation
Advisory Council on Historic Preservation
Standards and Guidelines for the Conservation of Historic Places in Canada
PreserveNet: A Cornell-affiliated web page designed to provide preservationists with a comprehensive database of regularly updated internet resources and current professional opportunities.
PreservationDirectory.com: A resource for historic preservation, building restoration and cultural resource management in the US and Canada
The Association for Preservation Technology International (APT): is a cross-disciplinary, membership organization dedicated to promoting the best technology for conserving historic structures and their settings.
Preservation Trades Network (PTN): membership community organization focused on traditional trades practitioners and allied professionals in the international preservation industry
Preservation News Vol. 1 (1961) - Vol. 35 no. 1 (Feb/March 1995). Monthly publication of the Preservation Press of the National Trust for Historic Preservation of the United States.
National Council for Preservation Education: (NCPE) Guide to over fifty academic programs in historic preservation and allied fields in the United States and other information
WWW-VL US Historic Preservation Virtual Library of resources for preservation, including green LEED examples
National Register of Historic Places
National Register of Historic Places
The National Register of Historic Places is the United States government's official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects worthy of preservation. The passing of the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) in 1966 established the National Register and the process for adding properties to it. Of the more than one million properties on the National Register, 80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing members within historic districts. Each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or through individual listings.
For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service (NPS), an agency within the United States Department of the Interior. Its goals are to help property owners and groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, they do provide some financial incentive to listed property owners. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP). The application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics in the fields of history and preservation, as well as the public, and politicians.
Occasionally historic sites outside the country proper but associated with the United States (such as the American Embassy in Tangiers) are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts and Multiple Property Submissions (MPS). The Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties: building, structure, site, object, and districts. Historic districts consist of contributing and non-contributing property types. Some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they come under the aegis of the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks (NHL), National Historic Sites (NHS), National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials and some National Monuments.[2]
History
On October 15, 1966 the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices (SHPO).[4] Initially the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Register's creation, as well as any other historic sites within the National Park system.[5] The passage of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad based historic preservation policy.[6][4] The 1966 act required those agencies to work in conjunction with the SHPO and an independent federal agency, the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation (ACHP), to confront adverse effects of federal activities on historic preservation.[7]
To encompass the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service under the U.S. Department of Interior, under director George B. Hartzog, Jr., established an administrative division called the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation (OAHP).[7][8] Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law. Ernest Connally was the Office's first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register.[9] The division oversaw several existing programs, including the Historic Sites Survey and the Historic American Buildings Survey, as well as the new NRHP and Historic Preservation Fund.[7]
The first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian.[5] In the Register's earliest years, the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed and underfunded.[8] Indeed, money was tight, but funds were still being supplied for the Historic Preservation Fund to provide matching grants-in-aid to listed property owners, first for house museums and institutional buildings but later for commercial structures as well.[7]
A few years later in 1973, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U.S. National Parks system and the National Register were formally categorized into two "Assistant Directorates." Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation.[9] From 1978 until 1981 the lead agency for the NRHP was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service (HCRS) within the United States Department of Interior.[10]
In February 1983 the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs. Jerry L. Rogers was picked to lead this newly merged associate directorate. He was described as a skilled administrator who was sensitive to the need for the NPS to work with SHPOs, academia and local governments.[9]
Though not initially spelled out in the 1966 act, the role of the SHPO eventually became integral to the process to list properties on the National Register. The 1980 amendments to the 1966 law further laid out the responsibilities of SHPO concerning the federal National Register.[10] Several 1992 amendments to the NHPA added a classification to the National Register known as Traditional Cultural Properties, properties associated with Native American or Hawaiian groups.[6]
The National Register of Historic Places has grown considerably from its beginnings as legislation in 1966. In 1986 citizens and groups nominated 3,623 separate properties, sites, and districts for inclusion on the NRHP, a total of 75,000 separate properties.[10] Of the more than one million properties on the National Register, 80,000 are listed individually. Others are listed as contributing members within historic districts.[7][11]
Property owner incentives
Properties are not protected in any strict sense by the Federal listing. States and local zoning bodies may or may not choose to protect listed Historic Places.[13] Indirect protection is possible, through state and local regulations on development of NRHP properties, and through tax incentives.
Until 1976 tax incentives were virtually non-existent for buildings on the National Register. Before 1976 the federal tax code favored new construction over the reuse of existing, sometimes historical, structures.[7] After 1976 the tax code was altered to provide tax incentives which promote preservation of income-producing historic properties. The National Park Service had the responsibility to ensure that only rehabilitations that preserved the historic character of a building would qualify for the federal tax incentives. Properties and sites listed on the Register, as well as those considered contributing properties to a local historic district "approved by the Park Service", became eligible for the federal tax benefits.[7]
Owners of properties listed on the National Register of Historic Places can be eligible for a 20% investment tax credit for the "certified rehabilitation of income-producing certified historic structures." The rehabilitation can be as commercial, industrial or residential, for rentals.[14]
The tax incentives program is operated by the Federal Historic Preservation Tax Incentives program, which is jointly managed by the National Park Service, SHPO, and the Internal Revenue Service.[15] Aside from the 20% tax credit, the tax incentive program offers a 10% tax credit for rehabilitation to owners of non-historic, non-residential buildings constructed before 1936.[16]
Some property owners may qualify for grants as well, for instance, the Save America's Treasures grants that apply specifically to NRHP properties which were entered in the Register at a national level of significance or designated as National Historic Landmarks.[17]
The NHPA made no distinction between properties listed on the National Register of Historic Places and those designated as National Historic Landmarks concerning qualification for tax incentives or grants. This was deliberate on the part of the 1966 act's authors. Their experience had shown that categories of significance caused the lowest category to become expendable.[5] Essentially, this reduced the Landmarks to little more than the "honor roll" of the National Register of Historic Places.[5]
Nomination process
Any individual can prepare a National Register nomination, although historians and historic preservation consultants are often employed for this work. The nomination contains basic information on the type of significance embodied in the building, district, or site.[19] The State Historic Preservation Office receives National Register nominations and supplies feedback to the individual or group preparing the nomination, which is done via a standard nomination form. The SHPO sends each nomination to the state's historic preservation advisory board, which then recommends whether the State Historic Preservation Officer should forward it to the Keeper of the Register. Only the State Historic Preservation Officer can officially nominate a property for inclusion in the National Register. The nomination is sent to the National Park Service which then approves or denies the nomination. If approved, it is officially entered by the Keeper of the Register into the National Register of Historic Places.[19] Owners are also informed of the nomination during the review by the SHPO. If an owner objects to a nomination, or in the case of a historic district, a majority of owners, then the property cannot be listed in the National Register of Historic Places.[19]
Criteria
For a property to be listed it must meet at least one of the four NRHP key criteria.[21] Information on architectural styles, association with various aspects of social history and commerce, and ownership are all integral parts of the nomination. Each nomination generally provides a narrative section which describes the site or building in detail and justifies why it is historically significant. The NRHP criteria fall into four categories. To meet the "Event" category, criterion A, the property must make a contribution to the broad patterns of American history. Criterion B, "Person," is associated with significant people in the American past. The third criterion, C, "Design/Construction," is affiliated with the distinctive characteristics of the building through its construction and architecture, including having high artistic value or being the work of a master. The final criterion, D, "Information potential," is satisfied if the property has yielded or may be likely to yield information important to prehistory or history.[19] The criteria are applied differently for different types of properties, for instance, maritime properties have different application guidelines than buildings.[21]
Exclusions
There are also specific instances where properties usually do not merit listing on the National Register. As a general rule, cemeteries, birthplaces, graves of historical figures, properties owned by religious institutions or used for religious purposes, moved structures, reconstructed historic buildings, commemorative properties, and properties which have achieved significance in the last 50 years are not qualified for listing on the Register.[19] There are, however, exceptions to every category on that list. There are mitigating circumstances which allow properties classified in one of those groups to be included.[19]
Listed properties
A listing on the National Register of Historic Places is governmental acknowledgment of a historic district, site, building or property. However, the Register is mostly "an honorary status with some federal financial incentives."[22] The National Register of Historic Places automatically includes all National Historic Landmarks as well as all historic areas administered by the National Park Service.[4] Besides Landmarks these include: National Historic Sites (NHS), National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, and some National Monuments. Occasionally historic sites outside the country's traditional borders but associated with the United States, such as the American Embassy in Tangiers, are also listed.[23]
Listing in the National Register does not restrict private property owners from the use of their property.[14] Some states and municipalities, however, may have laws that become effective when a property is listed on the National Register. If federal money or a federal permitting process is involved, Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 is invoked. Section 106 requires the federal agency involved to assess the impact of its actions on historic resources.[4] Statutorily, the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation has the most significant role under Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act. The section requires that the head of any federal agency with direct or indirect jurisdiction over a project which may affect a property listed on the National Register of Historic Places, must first report to the Advisory Council. The head of said agency is required to "take into account the effect of the undertaking" on the National Register property, as well as to afford the ACHP a reasonable opportunity to comment.[24]
While Section 106 does not explicitly mandate that any federal agency head listen to the advice of the ACHP, practically their advice carries weight, especially given the statutory obligations laid out in the NHPA that require federal agencies to "take into account the effect of the undertaking."[24][4]
In cases where the ACHP determines federal action will have an "adverse effect" on historic properties, mitigation is sought. Typically, a Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) is created by which the involved parties agree to a particular plan. Many states have laws similar to Section 106.[25] In contrast to conditions relating to a federally Registered Historic District, often municipal ordinances governing local historic district restrict certain kinds of changes to properties. Thus they may protect the property more than a National Register listing does.[26]
The Department of Transportation Act, passed on October 15, 1966, the same day as the National Historic Preservation Act, included provisions that addressed historic preservation. The language of the DOT Act is much broader than Section 106 NHPA in that it refers to properties beyond those listed on the Register.[24]
The broader language has allowed more properties and parklands to enjoy status as protected areas under this legislation, a policy laid out early on in its history. The United States Supreme Court ruled in the 1971 case Citizens to Preserve Overton Park v. Volpe that parklands could have the same protected status as "historic sites."[24]
Multiple Property Submission
A Multiple Property Submission (MPS) is a thematic group listing in the National Register of Historic Places which consists of related properties. The properties are of a common theme and can be submitted as a group. The multiple property submissions outlines basic criteria for National Register inclusion for properties of a certain type.
The process begins with the Multiple Property Documentation Form, which acts as a cover document rather than the nomination to the NRHP. The purpose of the documentation form is to establish the basis of eligibility for related properties. The information outlined in the Multiple Property Documentation Form can be used to nominate and register related historic properties simultaneously or, to establish criteria for properties which may be nominated in the future. Thus, additions to an MPS can occur over a period of years. The actual nomination of individual properties in an MPS is done in the same manner other nominations are made. The name of the "thematic group" denotes the historical framework of the properties. It is considered the "multiple property listing." Once an individual or group of properties are nominated and listed on the NRHP, the Multiple Property Documentation From, combined with the individual National Register of Historic Places Nomination Forms, constitute a Multiple Property Submission.[27] Examples of MPS include the Lee County Multiple Property Submission, the Warehouses in Omaha, and the Illinois Carnegie Libraries. Before the term Multiple Property Submission was introduced, in 1984, such listings were known as "Thematic Resources" (TR) or "Multiple Resource Areas" (MRA).[28]
Types of properties
Listed properties generally fall into one of five categories, though there are special considerations for other types of properties which do not fit into these five broad categories or fit into more specialized subcategories. The five general categories for NRHP properties are: building, structure, object, site, and district.[21] In addition, historic districts consist of contributing and non-contributing properties.
Buildings, as defined by the National Register, are distinguished in the traditional sense. Examples include a house, barn, hotel, church, or similar construction. They are created primarily to shelter human activity. The term building, as in outbuilding, can be used to refer to historically and functionally related units, such as a courthouse and a jail or a barn and a house.[21]
Structures differ from buildings, in that they are functional constructions meant to be used for purposes other than sheltering human activity. Examples include, an aircraft, a grain elevator, a gazebo and a bridge.
Objects are usually artistic in nature, or small in scale when compared to structures and buildings. Though objects may be movable they are generally associated with a specific setting or environment. Examples of objects include, monuments, sculptures and fountains.
Sites are the location of significant events which can be prehistoric or historic in nature and represent activities, buildings (standing, ruined or vanished). With sites it is the location itself which is of historical interest. It possesses cultural or archaeological value regardless of the value of any structures which currently exist on the location. Examples of sites include shipwrecks, battlefields, campsites, natural features and rock shelters.[21]
Historic districts possess a concentration, linkage or continuity of the other four types of properties. Objects, structures, buildings, and sites within a historic district are united historically or aesthetically, either by choice or by the nature of their development.[21]
There are several other different types of historic preservation associated with the properties on the National Register of Historic Places that do not fall into the categories with simple buildings and historic districts. Through the National Park Service, the National Register of Historic Places publishes a series of bulletins designed to aid in evaluating and applying the criteria for evaluation against different types of properties.[21] Though the criteria are always the same, the way they are applied can differ slightly, depending upon the type of property involved. The National Register bulletins cover application of the criteria for aids to navigation, historic battlefields, archaeological sites, aviation properties, cemeteries and burial places, historic designed landscapes, mining sites, post offices, properties associated with significant persons, properties achieving significance within the last 50 years, rural historic landscapes, traditional cultural properties, and vessels and shipwrecks.[21]
Criticism
In 1983 Joseph A. Tainter and G. John Lucas published "Epistemology of the Significance Concept," in American Antiquity. The paper dealt with the notion of significance and the "dilemma" it presented concerning which properties were included on the NRHP and which ones were not. The main idea underlying Lucas' and Tainter's paper was the quest for a "deeper understanding" of the notion of significance as it pertained to historic preservation efforts in the United States. Through that deeper understanding they hoped to "suggest possible courses of action for dealing with some aspects of the significance dilemma."[30] The two criticized the idea of significance as it was applied by the NRHP, stating that three of the criteria for inclusion basically defined significance as "significant." The fourth criterion, they stated, defined the concept as "important."[30] Tainter and Lucas' view drew considerable response from the larger academic community.[31][32]
Stephen Mikesell argued a similar position in 1986 in his paper, published in The Public Historian. Mikesell called the NRHP criteria "so broad as to be almost useless when evaluating specific properties."[29] A 1987 paper by Jerry L. Rogers in The Public Historian criticized the lack of a "human touch" in the way the program was administered by the National Park Service. The author contended the process was highly decentralized. Rogers further noted that federal historic preservation officers did not receive much training.[33]
The shortcomings of the NHPA are obvious when historic properties are destroyed, as when the Jobbers Canyon Historic District in downtown Omaha, Nebraska was demolished in 1987 to make way for a suburban-style corporate campus.[34]
See also
List of National Register of Historic Places entries
List of National Historic Landmarks by state
National Heritage Area
National Historical Park
List of heritage registers
Contributing property
Cultural landscape
Historic preservation
External links
National Register of Historic Places
National Historic Landmarks Program
Travel itineraries
Weekly updates
Nomination forms
Advisory Council on Historic Preservation
Working with Section 106
An Overview of Federal Historic Preservation Law, 1966-1996
National Register of Historic Places.com - unofficial website
National Register of Historic Places in Google Earth - (unofficial)
The National Register of Historic Places is the United States government's official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects worthy of preservation. The passing of the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) in 1966 established the National Register and the process for adding properties to it. Of the more than one million properties on the National Register, 80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing members within historic districts. Each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or through individual listings.
For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service (NPS), an agency within the United States Department of the Interior. Its goals are to help property owners and groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, they do provide some financial incentive to listed property owners. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP). The application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics in the fields of history and preservation, as well as the public, and politicians.
Occasionally historic sites outside the country proper but associated with the United States (such as the American Embassy in Tangiers) are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts and Multiple Property Submissions (MPS). The Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties: building, structure, site, object, and districts. Historic districts consist of contributing and non-contributing property types. Some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they come under the aegis of the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks (NHL), National Historic Sites (NHS), National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials and some National Monuments.[2]
History
On October 15, 1966 the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices (SHPO).[4] Initially the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Register's creation, as well as any other historic sites within the National Park system.[5] The passage of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad based historic preservation policy.[6][4] The 1966 act required those agencies to work in conjunction with the SHPO and an independent federal agency, the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation (ACHP), to confront adverse effects of federal activities on historic preservation.[7]
To encompass the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service under the U.S. Department of Interior, under director George B. Hartzog, Jr., established an administrative division called the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation (OAHP).[7][8] Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law. Ernest Connally was the Office's first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register.[9] The division oversaw several existing programs, including the Historic Sites Survey and the Historic American Buildings Survey, as well as the new NRHP and Historic Preservation Fund.[7]
The first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian.[5] In the Register's earliest years, the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed and underfunded.[8] Indeed, money was tight, but funds were still being supplied for the Historic Preservation Fund to provide matching grants-in-aid to listed property owners, first for house museums and institutional buildings but later for commercial structures as well.[7]
A few years later in 1973, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U.S. National Parks system and the National Register were formally categorized into two "Assistant Directorates." Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation.[9] From 1978 until 1981 the lead agency for the NRHP was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service (HCRS) within the United States Department of Interior.[10]
In February 1983 the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs. Jerry L. Rogers was picked to lead this newly merged associate directorate. He was described as a skilled administrator who was sensitive to the need for the NPS to work with SHPOs, academia and local governments.[9]
Though not initially spelled out in the 1966 act, the role of the SHPO eventually became integral to the process to list properties on the National Register. The 1980 amendments to the 1966 law further laid out the responsibilities of SHPO concerning the federal National Register.[10] Several 1992 amendments to the NHPA added a classification to the National Register known as Traditional Cultural Properties, properties associated with Native American or Hawaiian groups.[6]
The National Register of Historic Places has grown considerably from its beginnings as legislation in 1966. In 1986 citizens and groups nominated 3,623 separate properties, sites, and districts for inclusion on the NRHP, a total of 75,000 separate properties.[10] Of the more than one million properties on the National Register, 80,000 are listed individually. Others are listed as contributing members within historic districts.[7][11]
Property owner incentives
Properties are not protected in any strict sense by the Federal listing. States and local zoning bodies may or may not choose to protect listed Historic Places.[13] Indirect protection is possible, through state and local regulations on development of NRHP properties, and through tax incentives.
Until 1976 tax incentives were virtually non-existent for buildings on the National Register. Before 1976 the federal tax code favored new construction over the reuse of existing, sometimes historical, structures.[7] After 1976 the tax code was altered to provide tax incentives which promote preservation of income-producing historic properties. The National Park Service had the responsibility to ensure that only rehabilitations that preserved the historic character of a building would qualify for the federal tax incentives. Properties and sites listed on the Register, as well as those considered contributing properties to a local historic district "approved by the Park Service", became eligible for the federal tax benefits.[7]
Owners of properties listed on the National Register of Historic Places can be eligible for a 20% investment tax credit for the "certified rehabilitation of income-producing certified historic structures." The rehabilitation can be as commercial, industrial or residential, for rentals.[14]
The tax incentives program is operated by the Federal Historic Preservation Tax Incentives program, which is jointly managed by the National Park Service, SHPO, and the Internal Revenue Service.[15] Aside from the 20% tax credit, the tax incentive program offers a 10% tax credit for rehabilitation to owners of non-historic, non-residential buildings constructed before 1936.[16]
Some property owners may qualify for grants as well, for instance, the Save America's Treasures grants that apply specifically to NRHP properties which were entered in the Register at a national level of significance or designated as National Historic Landmarks.[17]
The NHPA made no distinction between properties listed on the National Register of Historic Places and those designated as National Historic Landmarks concerning qualification for tax incentives or grants. This was deliberate on the part of the 1966 act's authors. Their experience had shown that categories of significance caused the lowest category to become expendable.[5] Essentially, this reduced the Landmarks to little more than the "honor roll" of the National Register of Historic Places.[5]
Nomination process
Any individual can prepare a National Register nomination, although historians and historic preservation consultants are often employed for this work. The nomination contains basic information on the type of significance embodied in the building, district, or site.[19] The State Historic Preservation Office receives National Register nominations and supplies feedback to the individual or group preparing the nomination, which is done via a standard nomination form. The SHPO sends each nomination to the state's historic preservation advisory board, which then recommends whether the State Historic Preservation Officer should forward it to the Keeper of the Register. Only the State Historic Preservation Officer can officially nominate a property for inclusion in the National Register. The nomination is sent to the National Park Service which then approves or denies the nomination. If approved, it is officially entered by the Keeper of the Register into the National Register of Historic Places.[19] Owners are also informed of the nomination during the review by the SHPO. If an owner objects to a nomination, or in the case of a historic district, a majority of owners, then the property cannot be listed in the National Register of Historic Places.[19]
Criteria
For a property to be listed it must meet at least one of the four NRHP key criteria.[21] Information on architectural styles, association with various aspects of social history and commerce, and ownership are all integral parts of the nomination. Each nomination generally provides a narrative section which describes the site or building in detail and justifies why it is historically significant. The NRHP criteria fall into four categories. To meet the "Event" category, criterion A, the property must make a contribution to the broad patterns of American history. Criterion B, "Person," is associated with significant people in the American past. The third criterion, C, "Design/Construction," is affiliated with the distinctive characteristics of the building through its construction and architecture, including having high artistic value or being the work of a master. The final criterion, D, "Information potential," is satisfied if the property has yielded or may be likely to yield information important to prehistory or history.[19] The criteria are applied differently for different types of properties, for instance, maritime properties have different application guidelines than buildings.[21]
Exclusions
There are also specific instances where properties usually do not merit listing on the National Register. As a general rule, cemeteries, birthplaces, graves of historical figures, properties owned by religious institutions or used for religious purposes, moved structures, reconstructed historic buildings, commemorative properties, and properties which have achieved significance in the last 50 years are not qualified for listing on the Register.[19] There are, however, exceptions to every category on that list. There are mitigating circumstances which allow properties classified in one of those groups to be included.[19]
Listed properties
A listing on the National Register of Historic Places is governmental acknowledgment of a historic district, site, building or property. However, the Register is mostly "an honorary status with some federal financial incentives."[22] The National Register of Historic Places automatically includes all National Historic Landmarks as well as all historic areas administered by the National Park Service.[4] Besides Landmarks these include: National Historic Sites (NHS), National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, and some National Monuments. Occasionally historic sites outside the country's traditional borders but associated with the United States, such as the American Embassy in Tangiers, are also listed.[23]
Listing in the National Register does not restrict private property owners from the use of their property.[14] Some states and municipalities, however, may have laws that become effective when a property is listed on the National Register. If federal money or a federal permitting process is involved, Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 is invoked. Section 106 requires the federal agency involved to assess the impact of its actions on historic resources.[4] Statutorily, the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation has the most significant role under Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act. The section requires that the head of any federal agency with direct or indirect jurisdiction over a project which may affect a property listed on the National Register of Historic Places, must first report to the Advisory Council. The head of said agency is required to "take into account the effect of the undertaking" on the National Register property, as well as to afford the ACHP a reasonable opportunity to comment.[24]
While Section 106 does not explicitly mandate that any federal agency head listen to the advice of the ACHP, practically their advice carries weight, especially given the statutory obligations laid out in the NHPA that require federal agencies to "take into account the effect of the undertaking."[24][4]
In cases where the ACHP determines federal action will have an "adverse effect" on historic properties, mitigation is sought. Typically, a Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) is created by which the involved parties agree to a particular plan. Many states have laws similar to Section 106.[25] In contrast to conditions relating to a federally Registered Historic District, often municipal ordinances governing local historic district restrict certain kinds of changes to properties. Thus they may protect the property more than a National Register listing does.[26]
The Department of Transportation Act, passed on October 15, 1966, the same day as the National Historic Preservation Act, included provisions that addressed historic preservation. The language of the DOT Act is much broader than Section 106 NHPA in that it refers to properties beyond those listed on the Register.[24]
The broader language has allowed more properties and parklands to enjoy status as protected areas under this legislation, a policy laid out early on in its history. The United States Supreme Court ruled in the 1971 case Citizens to Preserve Overton Park v. Volpe that parklands could have the same protected status as "historic sites."[24]
Multiple Property Submission
A Multiple Property Submission (MPS) is a thematic group listing in the National Register of Historic Places which consists of related properties. The properties are of a common theme and can be submitted as a group. The multiple property submissions outlines basic criteria for National Register inclusion for properties of a certain type.
The process begins with the Multiple Property Documentation Form, which acts as a cover document rather than the nomination to the NRHP. The purpose of the documentation form is to establish the basis of eligibility for related properties. The information outlined in the Multiple Property Documentation Form can be used to nominate and register related historic properties simultaneously or, to establish criteria for properties which may be nominated in the future. Thus, additions to an MPS can occur over a period of years. The actual nomination of individual properties in an MPS is done in the same manner other nominations are made. The name of the "thematic group" denotes the historical framework of the properties. It is considered the "multiple property listing." Once an individual or group of properties are nominated and listed on the NRHP, the Multiple Property Documentation From, combined with the individual National Register of Historic Places Nomination Forms, constitute a Multiple Property Submission.[27] Examples of MPS include the Lee County Multiple Property Submission, the Warehouses in Omaha, and the Illinois Carnegie Libraries. Before the term Multiple Property Submission was introduced, in 1984, such listings were known as "Thematic Resources" (TR) or "Multiple Resource Areas" (MRA).[28]
Types of properties
Listed properties generally fall into one of five categories, though there are special considerations for other types of properties which do not fit into these five broad categories or fit into more specialized subcategories. The five general categories for NRHP properties are: building, structure, object, site, and district.[21] In addition, historic districts consist of contributing and non-contributing properties.
Buildings, as defined by the National Register, are distinguished in the traditional sense. Examples include a house, barn, hotel, church, or similar construction. They are created primarily to shelter human activity. The term building, as in outbuilding, can be used to refer to historically and functionally related units, such as a courthouse and a jail or a barn and a house.[21]
Structures differ from buildings, in that they are functional constructions meant to be used for purposes other than sheltering human activity. Examples include, an aircraft, a grain elevator, a gazebo and a bridge.
Objects are usually artistic in nature, or small in scale when compared to structures and buildings. Though objects may be movable they are generally associated with a specific setting or environment. Examples of objects include, monuments, sculptures and fountains.
Sites are the location of significant events which can be prehistoric or historic in nature and represent activities, buildings (standing, ruined or vanished). With sites it is the location itself which is of historical interest. It possesses cultural or archaeological value regardless of the value of any structures which currently exist on the location. Examples of sites include shipwrecks, battlefields, campsites, natural features and rock shelters.[21]
Historic districts possess a concentration, linkage or continuity of the other four types of properties. Objects, structures, buildings, and sites within a historic district are united historically or aesthetically, either by choice or by the nature of their development.[21]
There are several other different types of historic preservation associated with the properties on the National Register of Historic Places that do not fall into the categories with simple buildings and historic districts. Through the National Park Service, the National Register of Historic Places publishes a series of bulletins designed to aid in evaluating and applying the criteria for evaluation against different types of properties.[21] Though the criteria are always the same, the way they are applied can differ slightly, depending upon the type of property involved. The National Register bulletins cover application of the criteria for aids to navigation, historic battlefields, archaeological sites, aviation properties, cemeteries and burial places, historic designed landscapes, mining sites, post offices, properties associated with significant persons, properties achieving significance within the last 50 years, rural historic landscapes, traditional cultural properties, and vessels and shipwrecks.[21]
Criticism
In 1983 Joseph A. Tainter and G. John Lucas published "Epistemology of the Significance Concept," in American Antiquity. The paper dealt with the notion of significance and the "dilemma" it presented concerning which properties were included on the NRHP and which ones were not. The main idea underlying Lucas' and Tainter's paper was the quest for a "deeper understanding" of the notion of significance as it pertained to historic preservation efforts in the United States. Through that deeper understanding they hoped to "suggest possible courses of action for dealing with some aspects of the significance dilemma."[30] The two criticized the idea of significance as it was applied by the NRHP, stating that three of the criteria for inclusion basically defined significance as "significant." The fourth criterion, they stated, defined the concept as "important."[30] Tainter and Lucas' view drew considerable response from the larger academic community.[31][32]
Stephen Mikesell argued a similar position in 1986 in his paper, published in The Public Historian. Mikesell called the NRHP criteria "so broad as to be almost useless when evaluating specific properties."[29] A 1987 paper by Jerry L. Rogers in The Public Historian criticized the lack of a "human touch" in the way the program was administered by the National Park Service. The author contended the process was highly decentralized. Rogers further noted that federal historic preservation officers did not receive much training.[33]
The shortcomings of the NHPA are obvious when historic properties are destroyed, as when the Jobbers Canyon Historic District in downtown Omaha, Nebraska was demolished in 1987 to make way for a suburban-style corporate campus.[34]
See also
List of National Register of Historic Places entries
List of National Historic Landmarks by state
National Heritage Area
National Historical Park
List of heritage registers
Contributing property
Cultural landscape
Historic preservation
External links
National Register of Historic Places
National Historic Landmarks Program
Travel itineraries
Weekly updates
Nomination forms
Advisory Council on Historic Preservation
Working with Section 106
An Overview of Federal Historic Preservation Law, 1966-1996
National Register of Historic Places.com - unofficial website
National Register of Historic Places in Google Earth - (unofficial)
National Historic Landmark
National Historic Landmark
A National Historic Landmark (NHL) is a building, district, site, structure, or object, almost always within the United States, officially recognized by the United States government for its historical significance. Landmarks are designated by the United States Secretary of the Interior because they are:
On October 9, 1960, 92 properties were announced as designated NHLs by Secretary Fred Andrew Seaton. The first of these was a political nomination, Sergeant Floyd Grave and Monument in Sioux City, Iowa. It was officially designated on June 30 of that year, but for various reasons the public announcement of the first several NHLs was delayed.
More than half of the National Historic Landmarks are privately owned. There are currently fewer than 2500 NHLs. The National Historic Landmarks Program relies on suggestions for new designations from the National Park Service, which also assists in maintaining the landmarks. A friends group of owners and managers, the National Historic Landmark Stewards Association, also works to preserve, protect and promote National Historic Landmarks.
If not already listed on the National Register of Historic Places, an NHL is automatically added to the Register upon designation. About three percent of Register listings are NHLs.
See also
List of National Historic Landmarks by state
List of National Register of Historic Places entries
National Natural Landmark
Listed building, a similar designation in the UK
American Water Landmark
External links
National Historic Landmarks Program Official website
A History of the NHL Program
List of NHLs
A National Historic Landmark (NHL) is a building, district, site, structure, or object, almost always within the United States, officially recognized by the United States government for its historical significance. Landmarks are designated by the United States Secretary of the Interior because they are:
- Sites where events of national historical significance occurred;
- Places where prominent Americans lived or worked;
- Icons of ideals that shaped the nation;
- Outstanding examples of design or construction;
- Places characterizing a way of life; or
Archeological sites able to yield information.
On October 9, 1960, 92 properties were announced as designated NHLs by Secretary Fred Andrew Seaton. The first of these was a political nomination, Sergeant Floyd Grave and Monument in Sioux City, Iowa. It was officially designated on June 30 of that year, but for various reasons the public announcement of the first several NHLs was delayed.
More than half of the National Historic Landmarks are privately owned. There are currently fewer than 2500 NHLs. The National Historic Landmarks Program relies on suggestions for new designations from the National Park Service, which also assists in maintaining the landmarks. A friends group of owners and managers, the National Historic Landmark Stewards Association, also works to preserve, protect and promote National Historic Landmarks.
If not already listed on the National Register of Historic Places, an NHL is automatically added to the Register upon designation. About three percent of Register listings are NHLs.
See also
List of National Historic Landmarks by state
List of National Register of Historic Places entries
National Natural Landmark
Listed building, a similar designation in the UK
American Water Landmark
External links
National Historic Landmarks Program Official website
A History of the NHL Program
List of NHLs
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